The influence of turbine stator well coolant flow rate and passage configuration on cooling effectiveness

Market competitiveness for aero engine power plant dictates that improvements in engine performance and reliability are guaranteed a priori by manufacturers. The requirement to accurately predict the life of engine components makes exacting demands of the internal air system, which must provide effective cooling over the engine duty cycle with the minimum consumption of compressor section air. Tests have been conducted at the University of Sussex using a turbine test facility which comprises a two stage turbine with an individual stage pressure ratio of 1.7:1. Main annulus air is supplied by an adapted Rolls-Royce Dart compressor at up to 440 K and 4.8 kg s-1. Cooling flow rates ranging from 0.71 to 1.46 Cw, ent, a disc entrainment parameter, have been used to allow ingress or egress dominated stator well flow conditions. The mechanical design of the test section allows internal cooling geometry to be rapidly re-configured, allowing the effect of jet momentum and coolant trajectory to be investigated. An important facet to this investigation is the use of CFD to model and analyse the flow structures associated with the cavity conditions tested, as well as to inform the design of cooling path geometry. This paper reports on the effectiveness of stator well coolant flow rate and delivery configurations using experimental data and also CFD analysis to better quantify the effect of stator well flow distribution on component temperatures. Copyright © 2011 by Rolls-Royce plc.

Precursor flow rate manipulation for the controlled fabrication of twin-free GaAs nanowires on silicon substrates

Vertically oriented GaAs nanowires (NWs) are grown on Si(111) substrates using metal-organic chemical vapor deposition. Controlled epitaxial growth along the 111 direction is demonstrated following the deposition of thin GaAs buffer layers and the elimination of structural defects, such as twin defects and stacking faults, is found for high growth rates. By systematically manipulating the AsH 3 (group-V) and TMGa (group-III) precursor flow rates, it is found that the TMGa flow rate has the most significant effect on the nanowire quality. After capping the minimal tapering and twin-free GaAs NWs with an AlGaAs shell, long exciton lifetimes (over 700ps) are obtained for high TMGa flow rate samples. It is observed that the Ga adatom concentration significantly affects the growth of GaAs NWs, with a high concentration and rapid growth leading to desirable characteristics for optoelectronic nanowire device applications including improved morphology, crystal structure and optical performance. © 2012 IOP Publishing Ltd.

Experimental study of tip clearance flow in a radial inflow turbine

This paper describes an experimental investigation of tip clearance flow in a radial inflow turbine. Flow visualization and static pressure measurements were performed. These were combined with hot-wire traverses into the tip gap. The experimental data indicates that the tip clearance flow in a radial turbine can be divided into three regions. The first region is located at the rotor inlet, where the influence of relative casing motion dominates the flow over the tip. The second region is located towards midchord, where the effect of relative casing motion is weakened. Finally a third region exists in the exducer, where the effect of relative casing motion becomes small and the leakage flow resembles the tip flow behaviour in an axial turbine. Integration of the velocity profiles showed that there is little tip leakage in the first part of the rotor because of the effect of scraping. It was found that the bulk of tip leakage flow in a radial turbine passes through the exducer. The mass flow rate, measured at four chordwise positions, was compared with a standard axial turbine tip leakage model. The result revealed the need for a model suited to radial turbines. The hot-wire measurements also indicated a higher tip gap loss in the exducer of the radial turbine. This explains why the stage efficiency of a radial inflow turbine is more affected by increasing the radial clearance than by increasing the axial clearance.

An improved technique to measure axial variation in wall flow along the channels of a diesel particulate filter

A technique to measure wall flow variation in Diesel Particle Filters (DPFs) is described. In a recent paper, it was shown how the flow distribution in DPFs could be measured in a non-destructive manner. This involved measuring the progressive dilution of a tracer gas introduced at the "outlet" channel upstream end. In the present paper, a significant further improvement to this technique is described, in which only a single probe is required, rather than the two of the previous technique. The single, traversable, probe consists of a controllable flow sink, and slightly downstream, a tracer gas supply. By controlling the sink flow rate such that a very small concentration of tracer gas is aspirated into it, the total flow up to that location in the channel is determined. Typical results showing the axial variation in the wall flow for known wall blockage cases are presented. It is suggested that this technique could be used to interpret the soot loading in the filter channels in a non-intrusive way.

On the transition from displacement to mixing ventilation with a localized heat source

We investigate the steady state natural ventilation of a room heated at the base and consisting of two vents at different levels. We explore how the air flow rate and internal temperature relative to the exterior vary as a function of the vent areas, position of the vents and heat load in order to establish appropriate ventilation strategies for a room. When the room is heated by a distributed source, the room becomes well mixed and the steady state ventilation rate depends on the heating rate, the area of the vents and the distance between the lower and upper level vents. However, when the room is heated by a localised source the room becomes stratified. If the effective ventilation area is sufficiently large, then the interface separating the two layers lies above the inlet vent and the lower layer is comprised of ambient fluid. In this case the upper layer is warmer than in the well mixed case and the ventilation rate is smaller. However, if the effective area for ventilation is sufficiently small, then the interface separating the two layers lies below the inlet vent and the lower layer is comprised of warm fluid which originates as the cold incoming fluid mixes during descent from the vent through the upper layer. In this case both the ventilation rate and the upper layer temperature are the same as in the case of a distributed heat load. As the vertical separation between lower and upper level vents decreases, then the temperature difference between the layers falls to zero and the room becomes approximately well mixed. These findings suggest how the appropriate ventilation strategy for a room can be varied depending on the exterior temperature, with mixing ventilation more suitable for winter conditions and displacement ventilation for warmer external temperatures.

Spray visualisation and acoustic analysis in a gas-turbine type burner

This paper presents the characterisation of self-excited oscillations in a kerosene burner. The combustion instability exhibits two different modes and frequencies depending on the air flow rate. Experimental results reveal the influence of the spray to shift between these two modes. Pressure and heat release fluctuations have been measured simultaneously and the flame transfer function has been calculated from these measurements. The Mie scattering technique has been used to record spray fluctuations in reacting conditions with a high speed camera. Innovative image processing has enabled us to obtain fluctuations of the Mie scattered light from the spray as a temporal signal acquired simultaneously with pressure fluctuations. This has been used to determine a transfer function relating the image intensity and hence the spray fluctuations to changes in air velocity. This function has identified the different role the spray plays in the two modes of instability. At low air flow rates, the spray responds to an unsteady air flow rate and the time varying spray characteristics lead to unsteady combustion. At higher air flow rates, effective evaporation means that the spray dynamics are less important, leading to a different flame transfer function and frequency of self-excited oscillation. In conclusion, the combustion instabilities observed are closely related with the fluctuations of the spray motion and evaporation.

The development of aerodynamic performance measurements in a transient test facility

Transient test facilities offer the potential for the simultaneous study of turbine aerodynamic performance, unsteady flow phenomena and the heat transfer characteristics of a turbine stage. This paper describes the development of aerodynamic performance measurement techniques in the Oxford Rotor Facility (ORF). The solutions to the technological issues involved with transient testing presented in this paper are expected to achieve levels of precision uncertainty comparable with traditional steady flow test rigs. The theoretical background to the measurement of aerodynamic performance is presented together with a comprehensive pre-test uncertainty analysis. The instrumentation scheme for the measurement of stage mass flow rate is discussed in detail, the measurements of shaft power, total inlet enthalpy, and stage pressure ratio are also outlined. The current working section features a 62% scale, 1-1/2 stage, high-pressure shroudless transonic turbine. The required inlet flow conditions are provided by an Isentropic Light Piston Tunnel (ILPT) with a quasi-steady state run time of approximately 70ms. The testing is conducted at engine representative specific speed, pressure ratio, gas-to-wall temperature ratio, Mach number and Reynolds number.

The influence of water-miscible solvents on the permeability of clay

Centrifuge tests were carried out to determine the effect of 5 different water-soluble chemicals on a thin consolidated disc of clay. The evolution of changes in the clay permeability with time was investigated and other structural changes due to chemical attack were monitored. The findings presented here demonstrate that the permeability of the clay appear to be generally related to the polarity of the chemicals and the dielectric constant, with the exception of Butanol. In the case of Butanol at low flow rate and low stress level, the action of the chemical caused the clay to crack, with a consequent large increase in flow.

Numerical simulation of the growth of ZnO nanostructures in a tube furnace by physical vapour deposition

Zinc oxide is a versatile II-VI naturally n-type semiconductor that exhibits piezoelectric properties. By controlling the growth kinetics during a simple carbothermal reduction process a wide range of 1D nanostructures such as nanowires, nanobelts, and nanotetrapods have been synthesized. The driving force: for the nanostructure growth is the Zn vapour supersaturation and supply rate which, if known, can be used to predict and explain the type of crystal structure that results. A model which attempts to determine the Zn vapour concentration as a function of position in the growth furnace is described. A numerical simulation package, COMSOL, was used to simultaneously model the effects of fluid flow, diffusion and heat transfer in a tube furnace made specifically for ZnO nanostructure growth. Parameters such as the temperature, pressure, and flow rate are used as inputs to the model to show the effect that each one has on the Zn concentration profile. An experimental parametric study of ZnO nanostructure growth was also conducted and compared to the model predictions for the Zn concentration in the tube. © 2008 Materials Research Society.

Improving the performance of a valveless pulse combustor using unsteady fuel injection

This paper describes an experimental investigation into the effect of unsteady fuel injection on the performance of a valveless pulse combustor. Two fuel systems were used. The first delivered a steady flow of ethylene through choked nozzles, and the second delivered ethylene in discrete pulses using high-frequency fuel injectors. Both fuel systems injected directly into the combustion chamber. The high-frequency fuel injectors were phase locked to the unsteady pressure measured on the inlet pipe. The phase and opening pulse width of the injectors and the time-averaged fuel mass flow rate through the injectors were independently varied. For a given fuel mass flow rate, it is shown that the maximum pressure amplitude occurs when fuel is injected during flow reversal in the inlet pipe, i.e. flow direction is out of the combustor. The optimal fuel injection pulse width is shown to be approximately 2/9th of the cycle. It should, however, be noted that this is the shortest time in which the injectors can reliably be fully opened and closed. It is shown that by using unsteady fuel injection the mass flow rate of fuel needed to achieve a given amplitude of unsteady pressure can be reduced by up to 65% when compared with the steady fuel injection case. At low fuel mass flow rates unsteady fuel injection is shown to raise the efficiency of the combustor by a factor of 7 decreasing to a factor of 2 at high fuel mass flow rates. Copyright © 2008 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.

Investigation of the effect of combustor cooling geometry on acoustic energy absorption

To control combustion instabilities occurring in LPP gas turbine combustors, several active and passive systems have been developed in recent years. The combustion chamber cooling geometry has the potential to influence instability feedback loops by absorbing acoustical energy inside the combustor. The design of the cooling liner and the geometry of the cooling plenum and the cooling air flow rate have a significant influence on the absorption characteristics of the system. This paper presents the results of a cold flow study which was carried out in the course of a comprehensive study on the influence of the cooling geometry on combustor thermoacoustics. Absorption characteristics of three different cooling liner geometries and non-perforated plates were determined over a frequency range from 50 Hz to 600 Hz for different cooling flow rates and different cooling plenum volumes. The experimental results compared well with results from a low order thermoacoustic network model. The acoustic energy absorption spectrum of a cooling liner with 90°-hole configuration was found to be strongly dependent on cooling flow rate and cooling plenum volume, whereas the absorption spectrum of cooling liners with 25°-holes were found to be strongly dependent on the cooling plenum volume, but less dependent on the cooling air flow rate. All cooling liner setups with perforations were capable of increased acoustic absorption over a broad band of frequencies compared to the case of non-perforated combustor walls. © 2010 by Johannes Schmidt.

Unsteady ejectors: The effect of driver jet mark-space ratio

mark Unsteady ejectors can be driven by a wide range of driver jets. These vary from pulse detonation engines, which typically have a long gap between each slug of fluid exiting the detonation tube (mark-space ratios in the range 0.1-0.2) to the exit of a pulsejet where the mean mass flow rate leads to a much shorter gap between slugs (mark-space ratios in the range 2-3). The aim of this paper is to investigate the effect of mark-space ratio on the thrust augmentation of an unsteady ejector. Experimental testing was undertaken using a driver jet with a sinusoidal exit velocity profile. The mean value, amplitude and frequency of the velocity profile could be changed allowing the length to diameter ratio of the fluid slugs L/D and the mark-space ratio (the ratio of slug length to the spacing between slugs) L/S to be varied. The setup allowed L/S of the jet to vary from 0.8 to 2.3, while the L/D ratio of the slugs could take any values between 3.5 and 7.5. This paper shows that as the mark-space ratio of the driver jet is increased the thrust augmentation drops. Across the range of mark-space ratios tested, there is shown to be a drop in thrust augmentation of 0.1. The physical cause of this reduction in thrust augmentation is shown to be a decrease in the percentage time over which the ejector entrains ambient fluid. This is the direct result ofthe space between consecutive slugs in the driver jet decreasing. The one dimensional model reported in Heffer et al. [1] is extended to include the effect of varying L/S and is shown to accurately capture the experimentally measured behavior ofthe ejector. Copyright © 2010 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.

Boundary-layer suction system design for laminar-flying-wing aircraft

The present study aims to provide insight into the parameters affecting practical laminar-flow-control suction power requirements for a commercial laminar-flying-wing transport aircraft. It is shown that there is a minimum power requirement independent of the suction system design, associated with the stagnation pressure loss in the boundary layer. This requirement increases with aerofoil section thickness, but depends only weakly on Mach number and (for a thick, lightly loaded laminar flying wing) lift coefficient. Deviation from the optimal suction distribution, due to a practical chamber-based architecture, is found to have very little effect on the overall suction coefficient; hence, to a good approximation, the power penalty is given by the product of the optimal suction flow rate coefficient and the average skin pressure drop. In the spanwise direction, through suitable choice of chamber depth, the pressure drop due to frictional and inertial effects may be rendered negligible. Finally, if there are fewer pumps than chambers, the average pressure drop from the aerofoil surface to the pump collector ducts, rather than to the chambers, determines the power penalty. For the representative laminar-flying-wing aircraft parameters considered here, the minimum power associated with boundary-layer losses alone contributes some 80-90% of the total power requirement. © 2011 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.

An advanced multi-configuration stator well cooling test facility

Optimisation of cooling systems within gas turbine engines is of great interest to engine manufacturers seeking gains in performance, efficiency and component life. The effectiveness of coolant delivery is governed by complex flows within the stator wells and the interaction of main annulus and cooling air in the vicinity of the rim seals. This paper reports the development of a test facility which allows the interaction of cooling air and main gas paths to be measured at conditions representative of those found in modern gas turbine engines. The test facility features a two stage turbine with an overall pressure ratio of approximately 2.6:1. Hot air is supplied to the main annulus using a Rolls-Royce Dart compressor driven by an aero-derivative engine plant. Cooling air can be delivered to the stator wells at multiple locations and at a range of flow rates which cover bulk ingestion through to bulk egress. The facility has been designed with adaptable geometry to enable rapid changes of cooling air path configuration. The coolant delivery system allows swift and accurate changes to the flow settings such that thermal transients may be performed. Particular attention has been focused on obtaining high accuracy data, using a radio telemetry system, as well as thorough through-calibration practices. Temperature measurements can now be made on both rotating and stationary discs with a long term uncertainty in the region of 0.3 K. A gas concentration measurement system has also been developed to obtain direct measurement of re-ingestion and rim seal exchange flows. High resolution displacement sensors have been installed in order to measure hot running geometry. This paper documents the commissioning of a test facility which is unique in terms of rapid configuration changes, non-dimensional engine matching and the instrumentation density and resolution. Example data for each of the measurement systems is presented. This includes the effect of coolant flow rate on the metal temperatures within the upstream cavity of the turbine stator well, the axial displacement of the rotor assembly during a commissioning test, and the effect of coolant flow rate on mixing in the downstream cavity of the stator well. Copyright © 2010 by ASME.

Low temperature (< 100 °c) deposited P-type cuprous oxide thin films: Importance of controlled oxygen and deposition energy

With the emergence of transparent electronics, there has been considerable advancement in n-type transparent semiconducting oxide (TSO) materials, such as ZnO, InGaZnO, and InSnO. Comparatively, the availability of p-type TSO materials is more scarce and the available materials are less mature. The development of p-type semiconductors is one of the key technologies needed to push transparent electronics and systems to the next frontier, particularly for implementing p-n junctions for solar cells and p-type transistors for complementary logic/circuits applications. Cuprous oxide (Cu2O) is one of the most promising candidates for p-type TSO materials. This paper reports the deposition of Cu2O thin films without substrate heating using a high deposition rate reactive sputtering technique, called high target utilisation sputtering (HiTUS). This technique allows independent control of the remote plasma density and the ion energy, thus providing finer control of the film properties and microstructure as well as reducing film stress. The effect of deposition parameters, including oxygen flow rate, plasma power and target power, on the properties of Cu2O films are reported. It is known from previously published work that the formation of pure Cu2O film is often difficult, due to the more ready formation or co-formation of cupric oxide (CuO). From our investigation, we established two key concurrent criteria needed for attaining Cu2O thin films (as opposed to CuO or mixed phase CuO/Cu2O films). First, the oxygen flow rate must be kept low to avoid over-oxidation of Cu2O to CuO and to ensure a non-oxidised/non-poisoned metallic copper target in the reactive sputtering environment. Secondly, the energy of the sputtered copper species must be kept low as higher reaction energy tends to favour the formation of CuO. The unique design of the HiTUS system enables the provision of a high density of low energy sputtered copper radicals/ions, and when combined with a controlled amount of oxygen, can produce good quality p-type transparent Cu2O films with electrical resistivity ranging from 102 to 104 Ω-cm, hole mobility of 1-10 cm2/V-s, and optical band-gap of 2.0-2.6 eV. These material properties make this low temperature deposited HiTUS Cu 2O film suitable for fabrication of p-type metal oxide thin film transistors. Furthermore, the capability to deposit Cu2O films with low film stress at low temperatures on plastic substrates renders this approach favourable for fabrication of flexible p-n junction solar cells. © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.